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© 2003 Rural Industries Research This publication is part of RIRDC project UCQ- 13A, “Development of taro, yam, yam bean, and is a Senior Extension Officer at the (part of the Queensland Department of Primary Industries , Agency for Food and Fibre Sciences) Gatton Acknowledgments Executive Summary 1. Introduction 1. Beniazuma 2. Kokei No. 14 3. Benihayato 4. Koganesengan 5. Yamakawa murasaki 6. Beniaka 7. Ishikawa-wase 8. Dodare 9. Sereves 10. Yatsugashira 11. Tohno-imo: Ebi-imo 12. Takenoko-imo 13. Naga-imo 14. Icho-imo 15. Yamato-imo: Ise-imo This report presents information gained prior to a nd during visits to Japan and the USA in search of Most Pacific Islands produce large-corm ta ro, for home/domestic consumption and for export (to New Zealand, Australia and the USA), the dominance of countries varying according to disease (taro blight) pressure. Fiji is now the major non-USA exporter. The USA follows Japan as the second largest importer of taro (large-corm type) with Costa Rica and the Dominican Republic supplying 90% of the demand. The Australian taro industry is quite new, although the crop is not new to Australia. Divided into two types – Taro Pacific (large-corm) and Taro Supreme (small-corm) – production spans NSW, Queensland and the Northern Territory. Production of Taro- Pacific peaks in May-September but prices are reasona bly constant and imports reach up to 3000 t per annum. Production of Taro Supreme is in its infancy, with a view to satisfy local and export demand. While data on imports of yam to Japan fro m China are not available, annual production 1. Introduction RIRDC Asian root crops project: “Development of taro, yam, Yam – nomenclature . The United States has a yam industry. However, no reference is made to the USA yam industry in this report because of another nomenclature confusion. In the United States the Levelling off of yields as the rate of growth has slowed in many countries, including China. As flesh. An important function of certified seed producers and the foundation seed programs that support them is to rogue out or remove such mutations. Figure 2. Sweet potato - Australia. Annual wholesale performance, Brisbane: 1997- 2001. 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 19971998199920002001 tonnes 0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20 $ / kg Volume Price Monthly throughput is erratic making identification of a precise pattern very difficult (Fig 3). About the only distinguishable pattern is that volum e declines in February and increases in March. In contrast, prices (Fig. 4) show a more definabl e pattern with prices being markedly higher in the second half of the year. Figure 3. Sweet potato - Australia. Monthly wholesale throughput, Brisbane: 1997 - 2001. JFMAMJJASOND tonnes ure 4. Sweet potato - Australia. Monthl wholesale prices, Brisbane. 1997 - 2001. JFMAMJJASOND $ / tonne Literal translation Region of use foreign potato Henan, Fujian,, Guangdong potato yam mountain medicine Taro Yutou taro Digua ground melon Sichuan Dongluobo Hongluobo winter radish 1983 50 30 10 10 1989 10 55 30 5 1997 5 50 40 5 Change is not a universal phenomenon in Chin a; great regional disparities remain in food Chuanshu 27 Chuanshu 1 Anhui 623 368 Beijing 7 541 Chongqing 327 274 Fujian 246 902 Guangdong 448 556 Guangxi 335 007 Guizhou 157 878 Hainan 173 941 Hebei 277 068 Heilongjiang 3 258 Henan 632 859 Hubei 161 066 Hunan 271 856 Jiangsu 230 041 Jiangxi 94 420 Jilin 4 782 Liaoning 37 084 Nei-Mongol 429 Shaanxi 113 120 Shandong 1 036 687 Shanxi 43 960 Sichuan 1 036 687 Tianjin 4 966 Xinjiang 3 617 Yunnan 84 242 Zhejiang 134 579 Over time production has been dynamic, with an overall national trend indicating decline in Production Technology Heilongjiang Dongning and Shangzhi counties Liaoning Jinxian, Xinxian, Gaixian, Xingcheng, and Yixian counties Shaanxi Weinan Prefecture Gansu Wenxian, Wudu, and Kangxian counties of Wudu Prefecture Beijing Miyun, Xunyi, Fangshan, and Daxirig counties Tianjin Jixian county Hebei Parts of Chengde and northern Baoding Prefectures Province Principal production areas Anhui Fuyang and Suxian prefectures Hebei Xingtai, Baoding, and Shijiazhuang prefectures Jiangsu Xuzhou and Huaiyin prefectures Shandong Linyi, Changwei, and Yantai prefectures Gansu Wudu Prefecture Henan Shangqiu, Luoyang, and Xuchang prefectures Shaanxi Shangluo and Hanzhong prefectures The climate is temperate semi-humid monsoonal. The region is dry in the spring, with rapidly increasing temperatures. Summer is rainy with hi Province Principal production areas Hubei Jiangxi Zhejiang Guizhou Sichuan Yun, Yunxi, and Jun counties in the north, Enshi Prefecture in the west, and Yangxin Tongshan counties in the southeast Changde, Yiyang, and Xiangxi prefectures Jiujiang and Yichun prefectures Wenzhou, Taizhou, and parts of Zhoushan and Jinhua prefectures Tongren Prefecture in the northeast, Zunyi Prefecture in the north, and Qiandongnan Autonomous Prefecture in the southeast Dongchuan, Yuanmou, and Yongshan counties in the northeast Nantong, Mianyang, and Neijiang Prefectures in the Tuo, Fu, and Jialing River basins The climate is northern monsoonal subtropical humid . Solar radiation, daily sunlight, and the sunlight coefficient are the lowest among all the regi ons. The influence of the large number of rivers in the upper and middle reaches of the Yangzi River - high evaporation, and heavy clouds and fog - Jiangxi Guangxi Ganzhou Prefecture Chenzhou, Lingling, and Hengyang prefectures Jinjiang, Putian, and Ningde prefectures Honghe and Wenshan autonomous states Shaoguan and Meixian prefectures Guangdong Zhanjiang, Hainan and Shantou prefectures Guangxi Qinzhou Prefecture and some counties of Nanning and Yulin prefectures Yunnan Simao Prefecture It is noted that parts of the three Provinces constitu te part of the southern autumn and winter region Region #5 has a hot season of 8-10 months. It also has the lowest day and night temperature differential in the country. There are two dry seas little difference in day and night temperature. Refined starch products - Industrially, fresh root is processed into starch and alcohol products, and both fresh root and vines Shandong Jiangsu Sichuan Guangdong Guangxi Food 5 5 70 30 30 Feed 50 20-30 15 70 30 Industrial use 40 50 15 3-5 Exports 10 Waste, losses, and seed 5 25 up to 60 10 35 Prices increased during the 1980’s by as much as 40-60 percent. Though during the late 1990’s farm Season start Season end Shandong 0.33 – 0.42 0.32 – 0.40 Sichuan 0.32 – 0.34 0.36 – 0.40 : Based on surveys by the author, during th Thick red skin, clear yellow flesh. All production data for Japan in this report is from the Annual Yearbooks of the Ministry of Agriculture, Figure 7. Kansho Production, 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.2 1.4 1.6 tonnes and then further cut into smaller squares. This is then boiled along with rice. It is popularly referred to as “potato rice” or potato rice gruel” – a more liquid ‘soupy’ version of strips of dried potato and dried potato powder. The tuber is cut into strips and dried and/or then further crush into a powder. This is stored as a food source. In rural districts and farms it is often stored in straw bags. After soaking the dried potato in water it can be used to make and . The powder is used to make “dumplings” and other products such as “steamed Daigakku imo university potato. The tuber is cut di agonally into irregular chunks then fried in oil. Sugar syrup or honey is added, and finally sprinkled with sesame seeds. candy Caramel, drops, various candies, jam, food boiled down in soy, Malt candy Caramel, various traditiona l confectionaries, food boiled down in soy, medicine, paints. Sugar syrup syrup Sake, ice-cream, various confectiona foods, foods boiled down in soy. Refined d-glucose Bread, canned foods, various conf ectionaries (eg. chewing gum, biscuits, cakes, roasted confectionary, Crystallized d-glucose d-glucose Solidified or glucose Alcohol, bread, various confectiona ry, various processed seafoods, tanners. Direct food product Processed seafood products ( kamaboko, chikuwa, satsumaage sausage), bean starch vermicelli food articles Beer Soripuru adhesives Industrial use Corrugated cardboard, plywood. Miscellaneous Make-up Toothpast Glues Toys, matches, umbrellas Adhesive protection Rubber products such as surgical gloves Precipitation protection Shoe polish, agricultural chemical stickers Others Dry cell filler, explosives, float concentrates, glass wool Annual wholesale performance Tokyo’s wholesale data - Japan. Annual wholesale performance, Tokyo: 1987-2000. yen /kg Volume Price Figure 10. Kansho - Japan. Monthly wholesale prices, Tokyo: 1995-2000. JFMAMJJASOND yen / Kg 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 Figure 9. Kansho - Japan. Monthly wholesale volume, Tokyo: 1995-2000. JFMAMJJASOND tonnes Annual household expenditure patterns show that the volume being purchased is declining at around Data drawn from the Annual Reports of the Family Income and Expenditure Survey of the Statistics Bureau, Management and Coordination Agency. Figure 11. - Japan. Average annual household expenditure, 1977 - 1999. yen yen / 100 g Expend Price Japan. Monthly household expenditure: 1999. JFMAMJJASOND yen / 100 g Quantity Price is imported into Japan in the frozen form (Fig. 13) both as a stand-alone product but increasingly in combination with other products su ch as burdock, carrot, bamboo, and lotus root. In 2000, 713 t were imported at an annual average price of 89 yen/kg. All Japanese import data used in this report is drawn from the Japan Tariff Association monthly and annual reports. See White Paper in References. Figure 14. - Japan. Annual imports, fresh: 1992 - 2000. 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 Volume Price Figure 13. Kansho - Japan. Annual imports, frozen: 1996-2000. 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 19961997199819992000 tonnes 100 120 140 yen / kg Volume Price 3. Taro 3.1 Taro - Nomenclature The word “taro” appears to be derived from the Malaysian word . It would be tempting to state that this reflects the plant’s orig ins in that region. However, as Ivanic and Lebot (1999) advise, the riboflavin and thiamine. Ideally the leaves should be green or pink but not brown or purple. Leaves are usually eaten boiled or baked with coconut cream. Leaves from : Not all taro stalks are suitable for eating. The preferred stalks are from : There are two parts to the root (which in the strict botanical sense is a corm): (i) the central stem or corm and (ii) the smalle r structure, commonly referred to as cormels, that are attached wart-like to the central corm. Not all roots are commonly consumed. Corms are good sources of carbohydrates and potassium (Table 9). Edible portion (percent) 815584 Energy (cal) 856919 Protein (g) 2.54.40.2 Fat (g) 0.21.80.2 Carbohydrate (g) 1912.24.6 Calcium (mg) 3226857 Potassium (mg) 5141237367 Iron (mg) 0.84.31.4 Thiamine (mg) 0.180.100.01 Riboflavin (mg) 0.040.330.02 Niacin (mg) 0.92.00.2 Vitamin A (IU) Trace20385335 Whilst the corm is a poor source of carotene, the caroten e level is at least twice that of potato. Corms contain greater amounts of vitamin B-complex compared with milk. Corms are highly variable with respect to hydration, size, colour, and chemistry. Taro corms can contain up to 35 percent starch. Taro starch digestibility is as high as 98 percent. As the taro starch grain is significantly smaller compared with that of potato , taro is excellent for people with digestive problems, for those allergic to cereal starch, and those sensitive to animal milk. Protein content can range from 1.0 – 4.5 percent. Nearly all taros are cooked before eating because of the existence of the irritant calcium oxalate. It is accepted that, according to FAO data, taro pr oduction in Africa and Asia dwarfs that of the Pacific. However, in the following, emphasis is placed on Pacific nomenclature because it can be argued that taro is comparatively more important there than elsewhere . Historically, taro was a major staple in the smaller and more isolated Pacific Islands because it served as both a leaf were available. There was much differentiation Country or Language Name Guam Samoa Solomon Islands appears to be derived from the Egyptian word In turn this came from the Sanskrit word is considered one of man’s first domesticated foods with some evidence suggesting that th is occurred some 8,000 years ago Matthews (pers. com. June 2002, Matthews Explored at length in Ivanic and Lebot (2000). See the Section 3.8 Taro leaf blight in the Pacific Our thanks to Dr Danny Hunter, Australian Team Leader maintain. corms are consumed boiled and baked. In the Pacific, the use of the earthen oven to bake taro is an integral part of family and comm unal life: in Apia, the capital of Samoa, the air is heavy with smoke first thing on a Sunday morning as are fired up to be opened after church for the Sunday feast. The tradition of the Sunday feast has been carried to New Zealand and Australia by Samoans and Tongans and has a great deal to do with the price sensitivities in the two countries, at least amongst Islander. has the oxalic acid but not in as great concentrations as and . The presence of the acid leaves a slight stinging sensation in the mouth and throat. Cooking removes the acid. Experiencing such a sensation reflects poorly on the cook. leaves/blades are eaten after being baked in coconut cream. This is called r in Cook in Samoa, and respectively). Country or Language Name This is the largest of all the taros. The plant itself can grow up to 4 m high and corms up to a metre long and weighing up to 100 kg are found, albeit corms of 30 - 50 kg are more common (Ubaito 1996). Size alone assures the plant of having a high element of prestige, especially as an exchange item. is the main taro of Micronesia. Given the lack of land availability and the nature of the land on the islands that make up Micr onesia and a number of the coral atolls elsewhere in the Pacific, it is not surprising that special t echniques have been developed for its production. In production occurs in pits dug deep into th e coral down to the fresh water lens and lined with organic matter. It can take four years to mature but plants can stay in the pits for up to 15 years. The entire production cycle is associated with much ritual . To some extent, the time to maturity has resulted in tending to be consumed only on special occasions as well as enhancing the ritual associated with the production cycle. It Appears to have derived from a co Even with ceremonial uses and big feasts there are preferred cultivars. The common English name “swamp taro” identifies where it usually grows. It can withstand high levels of water. Other names are presented in Table 12. must be cooked immediately after harvest to prevent the formation of bitter spots. Country or Language Name Polynesia Samoa Solomon Islands This is larger and stronger tasting compared with . The principal corm is relatively large. It is rarely eat en because the flesh is very acidic. For this reason only the lateral cormels are harvested. Up to three cormels make a kilogram. The plant takes 9 – 12 months to reach maturity. There are three main species: : the most widely grown Samoa Solomon Islands 3.2 Taro - International trade Trade in taro tends to be focused on supplying expatriate populations from their home countries. Taro is traditionally consumed by Pacific Islanders , Hispanics and Chinese. International trade in Taro trade in the Pacific is based around supplying Islanders who live in New Zealand, Australia, and Until the mid-1990s, this trade was dominated by Samoa supplying Samoans and other Pacific Islanders in New Zealand, Australia, and the United St ates. It is useful to remember that there are more Samoans living in the capital of New Zealand than there are Samoans living in the capital of Samoa. The growth in non-Samoan based trade w as caused by outbreak in 1993 of Taro Leaf Blight (caused by in Samoa. Production in Samoa was devastated with production in the next year dropping to about ten percen t of the pre-blight level. Fiji started to grow the pink “Samoan” cultivar to fill the gap. Its trad e to New Zealand, Australia, and the West Coast of the United States increased dramatically. Trade into North America is based around supplying Pacific Islanders and Hispanic people from the Caribbean with taro from the Pacific and the Cari bbean-Latin America region. Supply is from these regions. In addition, North America has a larg e Chinese population. For this reason China is a There is a growing expatriate-based trade into Eur ope, especially England and France. This is in response to demand by expatriate Africans and Ca ribbeans. Most suppliers are drawn from the An example of the expatriate hypothesis is that Jamaica exports to the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom. Taro is not that popular in Jamaica but expatriate Jamaicans look upon the eating of taro as a means of confirming their roots with Jam aica. Exporters in Jamaica are conscious of this. By taking particular care at the farm gate to expor t part of the distribution chain, they have made their product the quality and price leader in the United States even though they are very much a minor supplier. The exception to the expatriate-supply explanation of the international taro is Japan. Whilst Japan does not have an expatriate population of any size, it does have a long history of consuming taro. With the decline in local production imports have ri sen. Thus the trade into Japan is for nearly exclusively its own population and not from s World trade in taro is estimated at around 145,000 tonnes annually. This estimate does not include the trade into Singapore and Hong Kong from, various Importing country Volume The estimate of 145,000 t is much higher than that of the FAO (Figure 15). Bearing in mind that Chinese exports constitute the bulk of the FAO estim ates, and bearing in mind the caveat regarding what is not included in the estimate of 145,000 t, it is clear that world trade in taro is much higher than usually estimated. Converted to approximately 70 000 t fresh equivalent. This estimate does not include the importation of taro Figure 15. Taro - Wo rld and China exports according to FAO, 1988 - 1999. 20,000 40,000 60,000 80,000 100,000 120,000 tonnes World China 3.3 Taro - Australia Anecdotal references were made to taro being br ought into Australia by Chinese joining the Gold This is a reference to the str My thanks to the Freeman Family, Tomewin Road, Currumbin Valley. The taro had been brought to Australia from Fiji by the first Freeman to work on the farm following his having worked in Fiji. Australian Centre for International Agricultural Resear ch, an initiative funded by th e Federal Government that Production occurs in northern New South Wales – from around Grafton northwards – and virtually along the entire Queensland coast up to Cairns. It is difficult to be precise but it would appear that well over half the total number of producers are Is landers – Samoan, Tongan, and Fijian – with the An estimate of that number is that there are 10 Paci fic Islander community church es in Brisbane with each church averaging 250 families. Figure 17. Taro - Annual wholesale performance, Brisbane: 1997 - 2001. 19971998199920002001 0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00 $ / kg Volume Price The small volume of monthly throughput (Fig. 18) enda Figure 19. Taro - Monthly prices, Brisbane Figure 18. Taro. Monthly wholesale volumes, Brisbane: 1997 - 2001. JFMAMJJASOND tonnes Taro Pacific is imported into Australia from Fiji a nd Tonga, and, prior to the outbreak of Taro Leaf Blight in 1993, Samoa . Import data are not available in Australia but an examination of Fiji export indicates annual imports of around 3,000 t. See the section Taro – Samoa. Pers. com. exporters in Fiji. Pers. com. Waisiki Gonemaituba (see section on Authors). commercially and non-commercially. By itself, TaBV does not seem to cause any problems for commercial production. NSW Agriculture assessed co rms from the trial plots and commercial crops for quality and taste. Further multi-location trials are underway for 2002- 2003, in NSW, Queensland, Northern Territory and Western Australia. The first commercial shipments are planned for 2003. The Japanese interest in good quality Australian-produ ced sato-imo has encouraged further interest ased on an article on the project by Daniel White (see section on Authors), David Midmore (Central Queensland University), Vong Nguyen and David Hicks (NSW Agriculture, Horticultural Research & 3.4 Taro - Fiji At the subsistence level, is produced using traditional methods with surplus being sold All data derived from the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forests. Figure 20. Fiji - dalo . Production and farmer number: 1990 - 2000. tonnes farmers Farmers taros and have not only longer production cycles – of around twelve months – but also the ability to be kept in the ground for a longer period. “Pink” types have shorter production cycles of around nine months and are considered soft types of taro. “R This is a planting density of 26,900 plants/ha. Mechanisation requires a minimum row spacing of 90- 100 cm to allow for inter-row cultivation. This r esults in a planting density of 17,930 plants/ha. Manpower required to plant a hectare in the traditional method results in plantings each of around a few square chain patches. Plantings done using oxen and tractor cultivation result in much larger Yields are high when the crop is planted at the be ginning of the rainy season from August to October. Wararasa Tausala ni Samoa 30 - 32 t/ha 12 – 13 t/ha Time to maturity 7 - 9 months 9 – 12 months Corm weight 1 – 2 kg 0.7 – 2 kg Corm dry matter 30 –35 percent 31 percent 5 – 6 per plant 3 – 4 per plant Another specifically bred type is commonly known as Yellow Taro. Slightly smaller than the traditional taros, it sells for a distinct premium becau se its taste is considered superior, an attribute associated with its harder texture. All the introdu Based on yields at the Koronivea Re search Station, not commercial yields. Figure 21. Fiji - dalo Monthly wholesale prices, Suva: 1995-1999. JFMAMJJASOND F$ / kg Figure 22. Fiji - Annual exports by volume and FOB unit value: 1990 - 2000. Volume Price 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 Australia 654 950 801 739 573 New Zealand 4,446 5,594 3,705 3,900 United States 403 426 333 592 279 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 Australia 1.33 1.18 1.44 1.71 New Zealand 1.38 1.33 1.50 1.50 United States 1.91 1.73 1.98 2.38 Industry issues In order to advance the industry, especially for Root Crop Industry Council This matter is treated in more detail in the section on Samoa. 3.5 Taro - Japan Sato-imo types Six types of taro are commonly identified in Japan: Only the daughter corm is used. New plants appear from August to September. Only the daughter corm is used. Have a sticky texture. Grown mainly on the Kanto Plain around Tokyo. Word derives from the Celebes in Indonesia. Mother and daughter corms are used. Corm has a reddish bud. Taste is considered not to be soggy. Both mother and daughter corms are used. Daughter corms do not separate from mother corm. Especially popular at New Year. Both mother and daughter corms used. or “lobster ” is produced by manipulating the soil to make a corm bent to look (bamboo). Only mother corm is used. Grows to 60 cm. Production data do not differentiate amongst the different types of sato-imo. Sato-imo production in Japan is steadily declining (Fig. 23). In 1998 production was 258,000 t. production is widely spread throughout Japan . The Statistical Yearbook of the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries records production in every prefecture except Hokkaido in the There are two major centres of production: Kanto Plains based around Tokyo that supplies about a quarter of the national total. The two main producing prefectures are Chiba and Saitama. On Kyushu Island where production is centred on Miyazaki and Kagoshima in the southern This is a major change from five years earlier. Then, production was more evenly balanced with both regions producing near equal volumes. In 1998 Kanto production was considerably greater than that of Kyushu. Nearly 99 percent of producti on is based on the autumn-winter harvest period. Again, this is a major change from even five y ears ago when just over 90 percent of the harvest occurred in the autumn-winter period. Figure 23. Japan - Sato-imo Production, 1955 - 1998. 1000 tonnes Japan has excellent data relating to its wholesale ma All Japanese wholesale data used in this publication, unless otherwise stated, relate to just Tokyo and comes from the Tokyo Municipal Authority. Figure 24. Japan - Sato-imo - fresh nnual wholesale peformance, Tokyo: 1987 - 2000. tonnes Quantity Price Monthly wholesale performance Monthly wholesale throughput data show that producti on is lowest in the hot months of May to August (Fig. 25). After August throughput volume rises sharply. Monthly wholesale prices peak in late spring - early summer (Fig. 26). Even allowing for annual Figure 26. Japan - Sato-imo - fresh. Monthly wholesale prices, Tokyo: 1995-2000. JFMAMJJASOND yen / kg 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 Figure 25. Japan - Sato-imo - fresh. Monthly wholesale volumes, Tokyo: 1995 - 2000. 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 JFMAMJJASOND tonnes 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 High LL size Medium – LL size Low – LL size Saitama 472 420 - 451 420 - 367 Chiba 168 148 136 - 148 Sereves type sato-imo – annual wholesale performance Data are available for the type (Fig. 27). These show that annual wholesale volumes are less Sereves type sato-imo – monthly wholesale performance Monthly wholesale prices peak in January - February before bottoming out in May (Fig. 28). Throughput in June to August is virtually neglig ible. Prices start high in September with the resumption of throughput volumes but the high prices must be seen as being of novelty value as they drop rapidly in October. Saitama product packed in 10 kg boxes whilst Chiba product packed in 500 g boxes. Figure 27. Japan - Sereves type sato-imo - fresh. Annual wholesale performance, Tokyo:1887-1999. 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 199 1996 tonnes yen / kg Quantity Price The above price data are for the average of all grades. Individual grade data are not commonly is one of a number of crops subjected to dom estic shipping standards. Suites of grades are types in Table 19. Table 19. Domestic shipping grade standards Type 2L L M 60 g 40 – 60 g 20 – 40 g 90 g 60 – 90 g 30 – 60 g A for fresh consumption B for processing, usually by peeling and freezing. Imports are not required to comply with the domestic grading schedule. However, given the fact that Figure 28. Japan - Sereves type sato-imo - fresh. Monthly wholesale prices, Tokyo: 1995-1999. JFMAMJJASOND yen / kg 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 There are two obvious trends that tend to lead to a third. One trend is the decline in annual production. The other is that wholesale prices, especi ally the monthly ones, show that there still is considerable demand. From the two comes the inevitability of imports. Japan is a significant importer of in both the fresh (Fig. 29) and frozen (Fig. 32) form. In 2000, Japan imported 20,344 t at an average annual CIF price of 51 yen/kg. Monthly import data (Fig. 30 and Fig. 31) reflect the seasonal conditions in China, the origin of nearly all of Japan’s fresh imports of . That is, Japan’s low season of throughput is its summer months and as China shares to a large extent the same geographic region, then China’s production is lowest in the northern summer. Figure 30. Japan - Sato-imo . Monthly volume of fresh imports: 1996 - 2000. 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 JFMAMJJASOND tonnes 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 Figure 31. Japan - . Monthly CIF prices of fresh produce: 1996-2000. JFMAMJJASOND yen / kg Figure 29. Japan - Sato-imo. Annual imports - fresh: 1995-2000. 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 199519971999 tonnes yen / kg Volume Price It is clear that volumes are lowest, indeed virtually non-existent in the period May to August. Figure 32. Japan - Sato-imo Annual imports, frozen: 1995 - 2000. 19961997199819992000 tonnes yen / kg Volume Value The second is from plants that are either fully ow ned by Japanese firms or under some form of joint venture with Japanese firms. The latter route sugg ests that the trade is more company-to-company rather than country-to-country. It appears that some Chinese growers supplying Jap anese factories considered that they are not Figure 33. Japan - Sato-imo . Monthly volume of imports - frozen: 1996 - 2000. JFMAMJJASOND tonnes 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 Figure 34. Japan - Sato-imo - frozen. Monthly CIF prices: 1997 - 2000. JFMAMJJASOND yen / kg 1997 1998 1999 2000 New Zealand is the major export destination for P acific taro. Two basic reasons are advanced for Preference by Pacific Islanders for “their” taro. Fiji began exporting taro to New Zealand in 1950 and Samoa started in 1957. Since then supplies to Table 20. New Zealand taro imports by country, C.I.F. NZ$. 1992 1996 1997 Cook Islands 3,700 216,927 54,967 Fiji 1,685,000 8,915,103 8,043,941 Niue 81,000 312,051 164,054 Tonga 4, 000 557,621 321,664 Samoa 2,169,000 64,992 11,712 Australia N/a 13,442 N/a Korea N/a 716 178 Philippines N/a 10,334 174,226 Thailand N/a N/a 1,844 Total 3,987,700 10,093,065 8,772,583 It is a common hypothesis that second generation em igrants move away from their traditional foods and thus traditional foods are declining. This is di sputed at least for taro in New Zealand where it is clearly still an important part of Pacific Islander cu lture and cuisine. Having such an obvious hero as Johu Lomu (the world’s highest paid rugby playe r) advocating the advantages of Pacific Island taro helps keep the tradition very much alive. However, whilst there will always be a demand for ta Two issues are noteworthy. Non-traded imports. A particular challenge for e xporters of taro to New Zealand is the role of non-trade imports. A significant volume of taro enters through church groups with church groups in the Pacific supply kindred church groups in New Zealand. A great deal of this volume Figure 35. Taro - New Zealand. Monthly wholesale prices, 1995 - 1999. 0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 JFMAMJJASOND NZ$/kg 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 3.7 Taro - Samoa Up until 1993, taro was the major crop of Samoa. It was one of three staples (with bananas and breadfruit) that fed the island and was the major e xport earner: in 1993 taro exports were 58 percent of total export earnings. Ironically, th e preferred cultivar was called locally Taro Leaf Blight was first noticed in July 1993 . By December the blight had spread to every district on the main island of U polu and covered most of Sa Given that plantings were dominated by the cultivar Taro Niue , lack of resistance was common, Taro Niue 5.8 7.2 1.4 33.5 3.1 Alafua Sunrise 10.3 6.2 0.4 33.2 2.9 the fungus was truly known (Fig. 36). Given the importance of the Blight to the Pacific taro industry, Section 3.8 contains more extensive notes. , December 1993. All statistical data drawn from the reports of the Central Bank of Samoa. Figure 36. Taro - Samoa. 1982198419861988199019921994 Volume Price It is only now that taro production has commenced recovery: full recovery is a long way to go Whilst use has been made of fungicides, most of th e recovery seems to be related to enhanced field sanitation, use of disease free planting material, greater use of crop diversification, and the breeding American Samoa experienced a comparable situation. In 1993, American Samoa production was 357,000 kg: this declined to 21,900 kg in 1994 and 5,000 kg in 1995. Figure 38. Taro - Samoa. Annual exports 1986 - 2000 (source: Central Bank of Samoa) 1992 Cases tala/kg Volume Value Even though in the United States there has been a seam less move to white types of taro from Fiji and other origins, the demand for the Samoan pink is such that should re-exporting commence, and , January 2002. 3.8 Taro leaf blight in the Pacific Taro leaf blight is a relatively common disease. In Asia where taro originated, the plant and the disease have co-exist ed through their co-evolution. As a result the natural resistance by the plant to the disease prev ented the blight from becoming a problem. When the emigration from Asia to the Pacific occurred, it was natural that the population would take one of the their major food items with them. But whilst th ey took the taro with them they separated the plant from its native environment and thus the plan t was most likely unable to keep pace with the development of resistance to the diseases. The blight has been present in Papua New Guinea , Federated States of Micronesia, Northern Mariana Islands, Palua, and the Solomon Islands for over 50 years. An outbreak in the Solomon Islands after World War II resulted in a permanent sh ift in some parts of the country away from taro In 2002 the Blight wiped out sufficient production in the Morobe Province that food aid was requested. As a result of this work there are active breedi ng programs in Papua New Guinea and Samoa. As 3.9 Taro – United States Given the size of the United States and the diversity of its population, the fact that it should be both a Polynesians such as Hawaiians, Samoans, and T ongans; Micronesians from the current and former United States dependencies such as Guam, Saipan, Yap, and Palau; and Melanesians such as Fijians. Data drawn from the Hawaiian Agricultural Statistics Service. Two types of taro are grown production is about ten times the volume of “Chinese”. In the late 1980s, “Chinese” type commanded a premium of around 50 percent over . By the early 1990s type received a higher Moreover, since 1988 farmer prices for have increased from around US$0.60 /kg to a little over US$1.00/kg. Farmer prices for Chinese type has been more static, moving from a little over US$0.80 /kg to around US$0.90 /kg. Despite the increases, total production continues to fall. High production costs in terms of the price in land in rela Palehua , a purple coloured type best suited for the market, that is pale yellow and pa’akala that Figure 39. Taro - Hawaii. Production volume and area: 1970 - 2000. (source: Hawaiian Agricultural Statistics Service) tons 100 200 300 400 500 600 acres Production Area Three issues remain: Labour is a problem . Unless taro production can be cons iderably mechanised, efforts to Availability. Given that the three new vari acific Islanders appear to be concentrated on the Samoans and Hawaiians are concentrated in Southern California around the Los Angeles A more ephemeral group constitutes the “Mormon Tra il”. This refers to Pacific Islanders who come to the United States as part of their faith. They tend to arrive in Los Angeles. As they make their way north east to Utah, a few tend in stay b ack in one place, another few in another place, and even a few more in yet another place. Whilst th ere is a Pacific Island community in Utah it is comparatively small. Samoans number about 70,000, the same number as Fijian “Taro production is hard work”. , 31 December 2001. pink type ceased after the 1993 Taro Leaf Blight outbreak in Samoa. Neither Fiji nor Tonga stepped in to fill this gap. The absence of the pr eferred taro type has not made the Pacific Islander heart grow fonder: instead it becomes more pragma now consume whatever type of In 1999, the United States imported 37,161 t at an average CIF price of US$0.89/kg. Over the years about 30 countries have supplied th e United States with taro. Costa Rica and the Figure 40. Taro - United States. Annual imports, 1981 - 1999. US$ / kg Volume CIF Price With the balance of imports, there has been quite a change in the composition of imports. For most of the 1990s, Chinese product was the price leader. This is a separate notion from it being the bulk supplier. Chinese pricing was highly erratic. Based on a 50 lb bag, over a week the price could be US$18, US$19, US$24, US$28 then US$19. Price variation was not necessarily related to volume fluctuations. This made price prediction all the more difficult. Other suppliers with far more stable pricing could not afford to maintain thei r prices in the face of such huge differences, thus forcing them to follow. Quality was acceptable in that there was a demand when price were low but when prices were a little higher and other pr oduct was available, buyers would switch to the ious premium enjoyed by “pink” over “white” would re-emerge. Taro exports to the United States have been an unwitting victim of the outbreak of the Foot and Mouth Disease in the United Kingdom. Imports, especially from Fiji, have been subjected to considerable USDA inspection. It costs US$600 – US$800 to unload and then re-load a container. On top of this is the US$300 required to transport the contai ner to and from the inspection site. Boiling and then freezing taro seems to address all quarantine-based issues. However, the end product is not as preferred by the consumers. Containerisation of fresh produce suffers from a lack of precision in the required temperature. However, even if there was defi nitiveness in the required shipping temperature, there still is the necessary prior condition that the produce be loaded at the appropriate temperature and appropriate moisture level. As was noted by Waisiki Gonemaituba in his section on New Zealand, commercial importers of Pacific taro on the West Coast have a great deal Vinning, G. 1998. 4. Yam 4.1 Yam - Japan Japan uses the term to refer to yams Yam types Four basic yam types are recognised in Japan: Quite sticky. Stick types are gaining popularity as easy to peel and grate. Two types are recognised as type has a white to pale brown skin (Plate 15.). This is popular in the Nara region. has a dark brown skin and a dark flesh (Plate 16.). It is a speciality of the Hyogo Another type of yam is a much more slender root that is less straight and longer compared type. Figure 41. Japan - Yam. Annual production: 1986 - 1998. 50000 100000 150000 200000 250000 1986198819901992199419961998 tonnes holding steady (Fig. 41). Yam production in 1998 was 176,900 t, a little higher than ten years earlier but down from the peak of 200,900 t in 1990. Production is extremely narrowly based. In 1998 just over 60 percent of the national crop was produced in the two northern prefectures of Hokkai do and Aomori. The other three prefectures listed as being producers are Ibaraki, Gumma and Nagano, just to the east and north of Tokyo. This is a vastly different situation compared with just five years ago. In 1992 when production was marginally higher at 185,300 t, production was recorded in every prefecture but one, albeit some of the recordings were for volumes of less than 500 t. In the same year, the two northern prefectures It would appear that the decline outside the five Figure 42 illustrates that annual prices and throughput are inversely related. Thus, when throughput rises or falls then prices move in the opposite dir ection. However, there is no high - low seasonal pattern (Fig. 43 and Fig. 44), for example throughput for the three years 1998 – 2000 was relatively static as were the previous three-year period 1995 – 1997. Figure 43. Japan. Naga-imo monthl wholesale volume, Tokyo: 1995-1999. JFMAMJJASOND tonnes 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 Figure 42. Japan - Naga -mo . Annual wholesale performance - Tokyo: 1987 - 2000. 19871995 yen / kg Volume Price Monthly wholesale price patterns (Fig. 44) have a higher degree of recognisable pattern compared with throughput. The extreme high-low price patterns for 1997 and 1998 inhibit stating that the high price period is usually July – October at around 325 yen/kg. – annual wholesale performance Unlike the data for , the annual data for shows a far more identifiable trend Annual throughput is slowly trending downwar ds while prices appear to be steady. Figure 45. Japan - Yamato-imo . Annual wholesale performance - Tokyo: 1987 - 2000. 1987 tonnes yen / kg Volume Price Figure 44. Japan. Naga-imo monthly wholesale prices, Tokyo: 1995-1999. JFMAMJJASOND yen / kg – monthly wholesale performance As with , the monthly wholesale throughput pattern for is difficult to decipher Two years, 1996 and 1999, show c ontinuous upward movement whereas for the other four years Figure 47. Japan. monthly wholesale prices, Tokyo: 1995-1999. JFMAMJJASOND yen / kg Figure 46. Japan. Yamato-imo . Monthly wholesale throughput, Tokyo: 1995-1999. 100 200 300 400 500 600 JFMAMJJASOND tonnes It would appear that some are imported from China but official data are unavailable. Given the industry standard of the from Aomori, fresh imports have a high level to aspire y other than the usual phytosanitary requirements. Some processed product is imported. This is in the powdered or, more accurately, pounded form to noodles to form 5. Appendix Maturity and season: Spring, summer, autumn Origin: Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sc Disease resistance: Root rot—strong; vine split—moderate; black rot, D. destructor Dry matter content (%): 26—30 Maturity and season: Early-mid, autumn Origin: Selected from hybrid cross of Y Disease resistance: Root rot—moderate; black rot and D. destructor Dry matter content (%): 27—30 Maturity and season: Spring, summer Origin: Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sc iences, selected from hybrid progeny of D. destructor, bacterial wilt—moderate Dry matter content (%): 34—37 Maturity and season: Spring, summer , maternal Pengwei x paternal Lizixiang, Dry matter content (%): 25 and Shandong mountain and hill areas Maturity and season: Spring, summer ch Institute, selected from progeny of Okinawa 100 x Nancy Hall, 1963. Disease and pest resistance: Moderate Dry matter content (%): Somewhat lower than Okinawa 100 Distribution: Suited to dry, low-fertility spring and summer production areas Origin: Natural hybrid of Ziye 100, from Shandong, 1964. Disease resistance: Root rot—moderate; D. destructor Dry matter content (%): 2—3% less than Okinawa 100 Hongpizao Origin: Sichuan Academy of Agricultural Scien ces, hybrid cross of Huabei 117 and Wushan 6. References Hirai, M., Sato, T. and Takayanagi, K. (1989). Classification of Japanese cultivars of taro ( (L.) Schott) based on electrophoresis pattern of the tuber proteins and morphological characters. Isshiki, S., Nakamura, N., Tashir o, Y. and Miyazaki, S. (1998). Classification of the cultivars of (L.) Schott) by isozyme analyses. Journal of the Japanese